Nutritional Requirements

Nutritional Requirements

Types of Water

SPARKLING WATER:

Carbonated water obtained either through natural underground springs or made by dissolving CO2 gas in water. Carbonation lasts longer in naturally carbonated waters.

MINERAL WATER:

Contains dissolved minerals. Various brands will contain different levels of minerals. Some mineral waters are made from tap water, then minerals are added or removed as desired.

CLUB SODA:

Usually tap water that has been filtered and carbonated. Minerals and mineral salts are added. Club soda will also take tomato juice stains out of your carpet.

SELTZER:

Usually tap water filtered and carbonated. No mineral or mineral salts are added.

SOFT WATER:

Low mineral content water. Usually comes from deep in the earth with its principal mineral being sodium. Will dissolve soap better and will not leave a ring around the bathtub. Will dissolve minerals such as lead from pipes.

HARD WATER:

High mineral content water. Usually comes from shallow ground that has high concentrations of calcium and magnesium. Hard water leaves rock-like crystals.

SPRING WATER:

Water without gas bubbles, usually tap water or natural spring water. Bottled bulk water falls into this category. When purchasing bottled water, try buying it in glass bottles labeled natural.

http://www.bellybytes.com/foodfacts/types_of_water.html

Meristematic Tissues

Meristematic Tissues

Tissues where cells are constantly dividing are called meristems or meristematic tissues. These regions produce new cells. These new cells are generally small, six-sided boxlike structures with a number of tiny vacuoles and a large nucleus, by comparison. Sometimes there are no vacuoles at all. As the cells mature the vacuoles will grow to many different shapes and sizes, depending on the needs of the cell. It is possible that the vacuole may fill 95% or more of the cell’s total volume.

There are three types of meristems:

1. Apical Meristems
2. Lateral Meristems
3. Intercalary Meristems

Apical meristems

are located at or near the tips of roots and shoots. As new cells form in the meristems, the roots and shoots will increase in length. This vertical growth is also known as primary growth. A good example would be the growth of a tree in height. Each apical meristem will produce embryo leaves and buds as well as three types of primary meristems: protoderm, ground meristems, and procambium. These primary meristems will produce the cells that will form the primary tissues.

Lateral meristems account for secondary growth in plants. Secondary growth is generally horizontal growth. A good example would be the growth of a tree trunk in girth. There are two types of lateral meristems to be aware of in the study of plants.

The vascular cambium, the first type of lateral meristem, is sometimes just called the cambium. The cambium is a thin, branching cylinder that, except for the tips where the apical meristems are located, runs the length of the roots and stems of most perennial plants and many herbaceous annuals. The cambium is responsible for the production of cells and tissues that increase the thickness, or girth, of the plant.

The cork cambium, the second type of lateral meristem, is much like the vascular cambium in that it is also a thin cylinder that runs the length of roots and stems. The difference is that it is only found in woody plants, as it will produce the outer bark.

Both the vascular cambium and the cork cambium, if present, will begin to produce cells and tissues only after the primary tissues produced by the apical meristems have begun to mature.

Intercalary meristems are found in grasses and related plants that do not have a vascular cambium or a cork cambium, as they do not increase in girth. These plants do have apical meristems and in areas of leaf attachment, called nodes, they have the third type of meristematic tissue. This meristem will also actively produce new cells and is responsibly for increases in length. The intercalary meristem is responsible for the regrowth of cut grass.

There are other tissues in plants that do not actively produce new cells. These tissues are called nonmeristematic tissues. Nonmeristematic tissues are made of cells that are produced by the meristems and are formed to various shapes and sizes depending on their intended function in the plant. Sometimes the tissues are composed of the same type of cells throughout, or sometimes they are mixed.

Courtesy---

Dose--Permanent Tissues

Permanent Tissues

The cells of permanent tissues do not have the ability to divide. These cells are already differentiated in different tissue types and is now specialized to perform specific functions. They are subdivided into two groups, viz, simple tissues consisting of cells which are more or less similar, e.g. epidermis, parenchyma, chlorenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma and complex tissues consisting of different kinds of cells, e.g. xylem and phloem.

Simple tissues are:

Epidermis
Parenchyma
Chlorenchyma
Collenchyma
Sclerenchyma

Complex tissues are:

Xylem
Phloem

Sclerenchyma

Mature sclerenchyma cells are dead and have secondary cell walls thickened with cellulose and usually impregnated with lignin. In contrast to collenchyma, which is pliable, sclerenchyma is elastic. The cell cavity orlumen is very small or it may disappear completely. There are two types of sclerenchyma cells, namely sclereids and fibres.

1. Sclereids: The cells are irregular in shape. The cell walls are thick, hard and lignified which makes the lumen very small. Simple pits (canals) are found in the thickened cell walls and link adjacent cells. Sclereids are commonly found in fruit and seeds.
2. Fibres: The cells are needle-shaped with pointed tips, thick walls and rather small lumen. Secondary cell walls, impregnated with, are formed. Simple pits are also present. Fibres are abundant in the vascular tissue of angiosperms, i.e. flowering plants.

Functions:

• sclerenchyma is an important supporting tissue in plants,
• sclereids are responsible for the hardness of date seeds and the shell of walnut,
• fibres probably play a role in the transport of water in the plant,
• starch granules are stored in the young, living fibres.

A line drawing of a sclerenchyma cell.

Epidermis

The epidermis is the outermost cellular layer which covers the whole plant structure, i.e. it covers roots, stem, leaves, flowers and fruit. It is composed of a single layer of living cells, although there are exceptions. Epidermis is usually closely packed, without intercellular spaces or chloroplasts. The outer walls, which are exposed to the atmosphere and usually thickened, and may be covered by a waxy, waterproof cuticle which are made up of cutin. Apart from the normal epidermal cells there are also stomata in the epidermis of leaves and stem. A stoma is an opening (pore) which is bounded by two beanshaped cells called guard cells . The guard cells differ from normal epidermal cells in that they have chloroplasts and the cell walls are thickening unevenly; the outer wall is thin and the inner wall (nearest the opening) is thick. The thin-walled epidermal cells of roots give rise to root hairs. Hair- like outgrowths may also be found in the epidermis of leaves and stems.

Functions:

• the epidermal cells protect the underlying cells,
• the waxy cuticle prevents the loss of moisture from the leaves and stems,
• the transparent epidermal cells allow sunlight (for photosynthesis) to pass through to the chloroplasts in the mesophyll tissue,
• the stomata of leaves and stems allow gaseous exchange to take place which is necessary for photosynthesis and respiration,
• water vapour may be given off through the stomata during transpiration,
• the root-hairs absorb water and dissolved ions from the soil.

A diagrammatic representation of a stomata, when open and close.

Parenchyma

Parenchyma is the most common plant tissue. It is relatively unspecialized and makes up a substantial part of the volume of a herbaceous plant and of the leaves, flowers and the fruits of woody plants. The thin-walled parenchyma cells have large vacuoles and distinct intercellular spaces.

Functions:

• the most important function of the parenchyma cells of roots and stem is the storage of food (e.g. starch) and water,
• the intercellular air spaces permit gaseous exchange.

A line drawing of a parenchyma cell.

Chlorenchyma

Chlorenchyma cells are actually parenchyma cells, but they contain chloroplasts, e.g. the parenchyma cells of leaves and stems. The mesophyll cells of leaves can thus be regarded as chlorenchyma.

Functions:

• the chlorenchyma are the main photosynthetic cells of the plant and manufacture carbohydrates during photosynthesis.

Collenchyma

Collenchyma tissues are mainly found under the epidermis in young stems in the large veins of leaves. The cells are composed of living, elongated cells running parallel to the length of organs that it is found in. Collenchyma cells havethick cellulose cell walls which thickened at the corners. Intercellular air spaces are absent or very small. The cells contain living protoplasm and they sometimes contain chloroplasts.

Functions:

• the collenchyma serve as supporting and strengthening tissue,
• in collenchyma with chloroplasts, photosynthesis takes place.

A line drawing of a collenchyma cell.

Xylem

Xylem is a complex tissue composed of xylem vessels, xylem tracheids, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.

1. Xylem vessels: Xylem vessels comprise a vertical chain of lengthened, dead cells known as vessel elements. The cells are arranged end to end and the cross-walls dissolve completely or have simple or complex perforation plates between successive cells. The secondary walls of vessels are impregnated with lignin and are thickened unevenly. The walls of the vessels may be thickened in different ways, e.g. annular, spiral and pitted thickening may be observed.
2. Xylem tracheids: A tracheids is an elongated cell, the contents of which are non-living. The cell walls are thickened, impregnated with lignin and the lumen is smaller. As in the case of vessels, there is a differentiation between annular, spiral and pitted tracheids again caused by the type of thickening of the secondary walls. Tracheids have no perforation plates.
3. Xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma bear a strong resemblance to normal fibres and parenchyma. Xylem fibres are sometimes separated by thin cross walls and the walls of xylem parenchyma are sometimes thicker than those of normal parenchyma.

Functions:

• xylem is an important strengthening tissue,
• xylem vessels and tracheids transport water and mineral salts,
• starch is sometimes stored in the xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.

A line drawing of the different xylem cells.

Phloem

Phloem is a complex tissue composed of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma

1. Sieve Tubes: A sieve tube, like xylem vessels, is a series of cells (sieve elements) joined end to end. The cross walls between successive cells (sieve elements) become perforated forming sieve plates. The cell walls arethin. Although the cell contents are living, the nucleus disintegrates and disappears. The lumen is filled with a slimy sap which is composed mainly of protein.
2. Companion Cells: Companion Cells are specialized parenchyma cells which always appear with the sieve tube element. They are also elongated, thin-walled and there is a distinct nucleus in the cytoplasm of the companion cell. Companion cells are linked with the sieve tubes by small canals filled with cytoplasm, which are smaller than pits.
3. Phloem Fibres: These cells are elongated tapering cells, found particular in the stem. They have thickened walls.
4. Phloem Parenchyma: Phloem Parenchyma is living and has thin cell walls. These cells form the packing tissue between all the other types of cells.

Functions:

• sieve tubes transport organic compounds,
• companion cells helps to regulate the metabolic activities of the sieve tube elements,
• the phloem fibres give the plant mechanical strength,
• the phloem parenchyma stores compounds such as starch.

A line drawing of the different phloem cells.

Courtesy---http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/SCI_ED/grade10/plant_tissues/index.htm

Fungus Infections

Skin fungus infections are hard to recognize. The itching, flaking, redness, and thickened skin of fungal infections can look just like other types of dermatitis or skin allergies. In fact, eczematous skin often becomes infected with fungi, so both are present simultaneously. Doctors use microscopes to help them diagnose skin fungus infections, so there’s no way you can really be sure at home. The Advisory will focus on the five most easily recognized skin fungus infections, but even after looking at the pictures don’t be too confident.

Athlete’s Foot (tinea pedis).

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Every year, over 10% of the U.S. population develops this problem. Probably 75% of us will have athlete’s foot at some time during our lives. The most common form occurs between your third, fourth, and fifth toes, sometimes spreading to the sole. Between the toes, your skin becomes white, moist, and easily rubbed off; the tops of the toes may be red, dry, and flaky. Intense itching and burning are the rule. Athlete’s foot usually occurs with hot, moist conditions, or if you wear shoes constantly.

Jock Itch (tinea cruris). The same conditions of heat, moisture (sweat) and poor air circulation leading to athlete’s foot also cause fungus infections of the groin, or jock itch. As its name implies, intense itching and burning are the usual symptoms. You will also find redness, flaking and peeling on the inner thighs, pubic area, and scrotum.

Ringworm (tinea corpora).

It is caused by a microscopic fungus, not a worm. The infected area spreads out slowly from its central starting point and creates a slightly raised, intensely red ring surrounding a less red, flaky, itchy area. Over weeks, the ring slowly enlarges. It can occur anywhere on the body and in multiple sites at once, so it’s often confused with other kinds of dermatitis.

Candidiasis.

Image via Wikipedia

Theis brownish-red, itchy discoloration affects the underarms, corners of the mouth, rectal area, and beneath the breasts. The same type of fungus causes vaginal yeast infections (candida albicans).

Tinea Versicolor. This fungus actually changes the color of the skin it infects; the patches may be lighter or darker than your normal surrounding skin. This spotted pattern and the fine scaly flakes at the

margins make this fungal infection the easiest to identify. Since itching and irritation are mild, it’s also the least bothersome.

Warmth, humidity, sweating, and poor air circulation all help bring about these fungal infections. But they are contagious, too. Athlete’s foot is believe to be passed on locker room and shower floors, and by sharing footwear and socks; you can acquire tinea versicolor from vinyl surfaces of weight lifting benches; and of course ringworm is contagious through direct contact (usually kids).

Because of all these factors, prevention is a matter of both personal hygiene and minimizing contact with potential carriers or contaminated objects.

There are several effective OTC anti-fungal medications. Because different fungi affect different locations, medications are sometimes specific for those locations. The recommendations below should help you sort it out.

Athlete’s Foot - Tolnaftate is the only OTC medicine approved for both prevention and treatment of athlete’s foot. Be patient, though. It could take a month or more of daily treatment for it to completely clear. Consider preventive use if the condition recurs.

Tinea Versicolor - Although not a Category I agent, selenium sulfide shampoo is universally recognized by dermatologists as an effective OTC remedy for tinea versicolor. Since it often affects large areas of the trunk, applying this shampoo once a day for five minutes, then washing off, is a lot easier and cheaper than using a whole tube of anti-fungal cream twice daily. Tinea versicolor also tends to recur easily, but this shampoo can prevent it if used once a week after the initial 2-4 week treatment cycle.

Candidiasis, Ringworm, and Jock Itch - Miconazole or clotrimazole are quickly effective (1-2 weeks) for each one of these conditions, and come in cream, lotion, or spray. Avoid alcohol-based products since they can sting chafed and delicate skin.

Courtesy--http://quickcare.org/skin/fungus.html

Images-- Wikipedia,Flickr

Dose (Biologists)

1. Louis Pasteur  was a French chemist and microbiologist best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of disease. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease, also reducing mortality from puerperal fever (childbed), and he created the first vaccine for rabies. He was best known to the general public for inventing a method to stop milk and wine from causing sickness - this process came to be called pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch. He is also credited with dispelling the theory of spontaneous generation with his experiment employing chicken broth and a goose neck flask. He also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, most notably the asymmetry of crystals. He is buried beneath the Institut Pasteur, an incredibly rare honor in France, where being buried in a cemetery is mandatory save for the fewer than 300 "Great Men" who are entombed in the Panthéon.
2. Norman Ernest Borlaug is an American agricultural scientist, humanitarian, Nobel laureate, and has been called the father of the Green Revolution. Borlaug is one of five people in history to have won the Nobel Peace Prize, the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal.
3. Alfred Russel Wallace, OM, FRS  was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist. He did extensive field work first in the Amazon River basin, and then in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the Wallace line dividing the fauna of Australia from that of Asia.
4. Johann Georg Adam Forster was a German naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, journalist, and revolutionary. At an early age, he accompanied his father on several scientific expeditions, including James Cook's second voyage to the Pacific. His report from that journey, A Voyage Round the World, contributed significantly to the ethnology of the people of Polynesia and remains a respected work among both scientists and ordinary readers. As a result of the report Forster was admitted to the Royal Society at the early age of twenty-two and came to be considered one of the founders of modern scientific travel literature.
5. Rosalind Elsie Franklin was a British physical chemist and crystallographer who made important contributions to the understanding of the fine structures of DNA, viruses, coal and graphite. Franklin is best known for her contribution to the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953. In the years following, she led pioneering work on the tobacco mosaic and polio viruses. 
6. Barbara McClintock was a pioneering American scientist and one of the world's most distinguished cytogeneticists. 
7. Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch was a German physician. He became famous for the discovery of the anthrax bacillus (1877), the tuberculosis bacillus (1882) and the cholera bacillus (1883) and for his development of Koch's postulates. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his tuberculosis findings in 1905. He is considered one of the founders of bacteriology.
8. George Ledyard Stebbins, Jr. was an American botanist and geneticist who is widely regarded as one of the leading evolutionary biologists and botanists of the 20th century.
9. Lynn Margulis is a biologist and University Professor at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. She is best-known for her theory on eukaryotic organelle genesis, the endosymbiotic theory, which is now accepted in the mainstream as the explanation for how certain organelles were formed.
10. Gregor Mendel  was an Austrian monk who is often called the "father of genetics" for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. Mendel showed that there was particular inheritance of traits according to his laws of inheritance. The significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century.

Oviparous animals

Oviparous animals are animals that lay eggs, with little or no other embryonic development within the mother. This is the reproductive method of most fish, amphibians, reptiles, all birds, the monotremes, and most insects and arachnids.
Land-dwelling animals that lay eggs, often protected by a shell, such as reptiles and insects, do so after having completed the process of internal fertilization. Water-dwelling animals, such as fish and amphibians, lay their eggs before fertilization, and the male lays its sperm on top of the newly laid eggs in a process called external fertilization.
Almost all non-oviparous fish, amphibians and reptiles are ovoviviparous, i.e. the eggs are hatched inside the mother's body (or, in case of the sea horse inside the father's). The true opposite of oviparity is placental viviparity, employed by almost all mammals (the exceptions being marsupials and monotremes).
There are only two known oviparous mammals: the Echidna and the Platypus, both native to Australia.

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LAST MOMENT REVISION IN PHYSIOLOGY

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• Cushing syndrome is a disorder characterized by obesity due to hyper secretion of glucocorticoids.
  
• Conn’s syndrome is primary aldosteronism.
  
• Addison’s disease is chronic adrenal insuffiency.
  
• Hormones of Adrenal medulla (Catecholamines) are
  
  • Adrenaline or epinephrine
    
  • Noradrenaline or norepinephrine
    
  • Dopamine
    
• Pheochromocytoma is a condition in which there is excessive secretion of catecholamines.
  
• Melatonin is secreted by parachymal cells of pineal gland, acts on gonads.
  
• Severe stress can raise ACTH and cortisol level by 20 folds.
  
• Fetal lung maturation depends on increased fetal Cortisol just before birth.
  
• Human prolactin causes synthesis of milk in the female breast.
  
• The half life of circulating growth hormone in humans is 20 to 30 minutes.
  

 

BLOOD

• Blood is a connective tissue in fluid form.
  
• Blood is 5 times viscous than water.
  
• Blood cell count is greater in children than adult.
  
• RBC is microcytic in iron defiency anaemia, prolonged forced breathing & increased osmotic pressure.
  
• RBC is macrocytic in megaloblastic anaemia, muscular exercise & decreased osmotic pressure in blood.
  
• Punctate basophlism is seen in lead poisoning.
  
• Goblet ring is seen in certain types of anaemia like malaria.
  
• Red cell vol. can be determined by radio isotope 51 Cr.
  
• Cyanosis appears when the reduced Hb cone, of the blood in the capillaries is more than 5 gm/dl.
  
• In vitro, coagulation is initiated by factor XII.
  
• Life of RBC's in adult human body is 120 days.
  
• Average life span of RBC in a newborn is 100 days.
  
• Average life span of RBC in transfused blood is 90 days.
  
• Life span of transfused platelets is 4 days.
  
• Life span of platelets is 9-12 days.
  
• Complete erythropoiesis occurs in 7 days.
  
• Erythropoiesis occurs in
  
  • In first trimester RBC's are formed in Yolk sac. While in second trimester liver is the main organ. Third trimester in liver & bone marrow.  
    
  • Upto age of 5 – 6 yrs – red bone marrow of all bones.
    
  • 6 – 20 yrs – red bone marrow of all bones & all membranous bones.
    
  • After 20 yrs – all membranous bones & ends of long bone.
    
• Hb starts appearing in intermediate normoblastic stage of erythropoiesis.
  
• Nucleus disappears during late normoblastic stage.  
  
• Factors needed for Erythropoiesis: erythropoietin, thyroxine, interleukins 3, 6, 11, stem cell factors, Vit B, C & D. (maturation factors Vit B₁₂ & folic acid).
  
• The iron remains in ferrous state.
  
• The affinity of Hb for CO₂ is 20 times more than for O₂.
  
• The affinity of Hb for CO is 200 times more than its affinity for O₂.
  
• Adult Hb consists of 2 alpha & 2 beta chains.
  
• Fetal Hb consist of 2 alpha & 2 gamma chains.
  
• In sickle cell anemia, the 2 alpha chains are normal but 2 beta chains are abnormal.
  
• In Hb C, beta chains are abnormal.
  
• Bilirubin is the final product formed from the destruction of Hb.
  
• Total quantity of the iron in the body is 4gm.
  
• 1 mg of iron is excreted every day through faeces. 
  
• Normocytic normochromic anaemia is seen in aplastic aneamia.
  
• Marcocytic normochromic anaemia seen in folate deficiency, Vit B₁₂ & hypothyroidism.   
  
• Pernicious anaemia or addsion's anaemia is marcocytic normochromic anaemia.
  
• Microcytic hypochromic is seen in iron deficiency, thalassemia, heamoglobinopathies & heamolytic anaemia.
  
• ESR decreases in allergic conditions, sickle cell anaemia, polycythemia & afibrinogenemia.
  

	Character	Normal
1.	ESR	Male: 3 – 7 mm / hr Female: 5 – 9 mm / hr
2.	PCV (Packed cell volume) (Hematocrit)	Male: 40 – 45 % Female: 38 – 42 %
3.	MCV (Mean corpuscular volume)	90 cuµ (78 – 90 cuµ)
4.	MCH (Mean corpuscular Hb)	30 pg (27 – 32pg)
5.	MCHC (Mean corpuscular Hb Conc.)	30% (13 – 38%)
6.	Colour index	1 (0.8 – 1.2)
7.	WBC	4000 – 11,000 / cmm
8.	D.C Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Monocytes Lymphocytes	50 – 70% 2 – 4 % 0 – 1 % 2 – 6% 20 – 30 %
9.	Platelet count	2,50,000( 2 lakhs – 4 lakhs)
10.	Bleeding time	3 – 6 min
11.	Clotting time	3 – 8 min
12.	Prothrombin time	12 sec
13.	Activated partial thromboplastin time(APTT)	25 – 40 sec
14.	RBC Adult male Adult female Birth	4 – 5.5 millions / mm3 5 millions / mm3 4.5 millions / mm3 8 – 10 millions / mm3
15.	Heamoglobin Adult male Adult female New born	14 – 18 gm / dl 12 – 16 gm / dl 16 – 22 gm /dl
16.	RBC Diameter	7.5 µ
17.	Blood volume	5 liters

• Granulocytes are neutrophils, eosinophils & basophils.
  
• Agranulocytes are monocytes & lymphocytes.
  
• Monocyte is the largest lymphocyte.
  
• In hemophilia clotting time is prolonged in presence of normal bleeding time.
  
• Christmas disease occurs due to deficiency of factor IX.
  
• Clotting factors
  

Factor I	Fibrinogen
Factor II	Prothrombin
Factor III	Thromboplastin
Factor IV	Calcium
Factor V	Pro accelerin (labile factor)
Factor VI	No such factor
Factor VII	Stable factor
Factor VIII	Anti hemophilic
Factor IX	Christmas
Factor X	Stuart-power
Factor XI	Plasma thrombplastin antecedent
Factor XII	Hegman (Conduct)
Factor XIII	Fibrin stabilizing factor (Fibrinase)

• Blood group:
  

Group	Antigen in RBC	Antibody in serum
A	A	Anti – B (β)
B	B	Anti – α
AB	A & B	No anti body
O	No antigen	Anti A & Anti B

• Universal recipient are Blood Group 'AB because it does not contain either Anti A ab or anti B ab.
  
• Universal donor is Blood Group "()" because it docs not contain either A or B agglutinogen (antigen).
  
• Commonest blood group is O.
  
• Diseases associated with blood groups:
  
  • Group A – C.A stomach
    
  • Group O – duodenal ulcer
    
• Normal basic acid output is 5-10 mmol/hour.
  
• Blood is stored in the blood bank at 4⁰C.
  
• The number of iron Heme in one Hb molecule is 4.
  
• The number of O₂ molecules carried by one Hb molecule is 4.
  
• Mean corpuscular diameter is 7.5 nm.
  
• Maximum concentration of Hb normally found in RBC's is 34%.
  
• In arterial blood, saturated Hb with 02 is 97%.
  
• Thromboxane A₂ is synthesized by platelets and promotes vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation.
  
• In sickle cell anemia, valine is substituted for glutamic acid.
  
• Platelets are derived from megakaryocytes.
  
• Pus contains — Dead neutrophils, macrophages and necrotic tissues.
  
• Cardiac output in anemia is above normal while in polycythemia is about normal.
  
• Agglutinins are either IgM or IgG.
  
• In Erythroblastosis fetalis, mother is Rh-, father is Rh+, foetus is Rh positive.
  
• Hapatoglobin is a plasma protein responsible for carrying free Haemoglobin.
  
• Usual anticoagulant used for transfusion is a citrate salt.
  
• Earliest feature of iron deficiency anemia is decreased serum ferritin.
  
• Arneth count is used in the determination of the percentage distribution of different types of neutrophils on the basis of no: nuclear lobes.
  
• Wilson’s disease is due to decrease in caeruloplasmin.
  

 

EXCRETORY SYSTEM

• Hormones secreted by kidney are erythropoietin, thrombopoitein, renin & 1, 25 dihydroxy cholecalciferol.
  
• 1 kidney contains about 1 – 1.3 millions nephrons.
  
• Ratio of corical nephrons to Juxtamedullary nephrons 85: 15.  
  
• The GFR of average sized normal man is approximately 125 ml / minute or 180 liters / day.
  
• At the rate of 125 ml/min, the kidneys filter an amount of fluid equal to 4 times the TBV, 15 times the ECF vol. and 60 times the plasma volume.
  
• 1 – 1.5 liters of urine formed / day.
  
• Urine osmolality in diabetes insipidus is 300 mmol/L.
  
• Normal protein excretion is 50 -150 mg%.
  
• The quantity of water lost as sweat per day is 600-800 C.C
  
• Normal urea clearance is 44 ml/min.
  
• Renal blood flow is 25% of cardiac output (1300 ml blood/min).
  
• Total length of distal convoluted tubule is 5 mm.
  
• Glomerulus membrane permits the passage of substances upto 4 nm and almost totally excludes substance with size greater than 8 nm.
  
• Each glomerulus is a net work of approximately 50 parallel capillaries.
  
• Urinary osmolality in diabetes insipidus is 300 m mol/Lit.
  
• Glucose and amino acid are absorbed in proximal convoluted tubules by secondary active transport or sodium Co-transport.
  
• Descending limb of thin segment of loop of Henle is freely permeable to water.                                                                   
  
• Areas impermeable to water — ascending limb of thin segment thick segment of loop of Henle. Proximal half of convoluted tubule.
  
• Areas impermeable to urea — Distal convoluted tubule & cortical portion of collecting tubules.
  
• Substances completely reabsorbed in PCT — Glucose, proteins, amino acids, vitamins, acetoacetate.
  
• Substances partially absorbed in PCT—Na. K, Cl (7/8 reabsorbed in PCT).
  
• Substances secreted in PCT — H+, PAH (para amino hippurate). creatinine.
  
• H+ are actively secreted in proximal tubules, distal tubules, collecting ducts.
  
• Hyperosmilality in the interstitum is the prerequisite for excretion of concentrated urine.
  
• Urea is reabsorbed from inner meduallary collecting ducts only in presence of ADH.
  
• K+ is actively secreted in Late Distal tubules and Collecting ducts.
  
• Macula densa is the epithelial cells of the distal tubule that comes to contact with the arterioles.
  
• Juxtaglomerular cells produce renin.
  
• Renin acts on angiotensinogen & convert it into angiotensin I. 
  
• Renal threshold for glucose is reduced in renal glycosuria.
  
• Creatinine clearance represents GFR.
  
• Clearance test for renal function includes inulin clearance, creatinine clearance & PAHA test.
  
• PAHA test is performed to assess renal blood flow.
  
• Micturition is primarily a spinal reflex.
  
• Thick ascending loop of  henle is impermeable to water. 
  
• Majority of sodium absorption occur  in the proximal tubule.  
  

Character	Normal
pH	4. 5 – 6
Volume	1000 – 1500 ml / day
Specific gravity	1.010 – 1.025

 

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• Average pH of semen is 7.5. 
  
• Life span of spermatozoa within the female genital tract is upto 24 hours.
  
• Speed of human sperm in female genital tract is about 3 mm/min.
  
• Male sex hormones are called the androgens (secreted by leydig cells); testosterone, dihydro testosterone & androstenedione.
  
• Mullerian ducts gives rise to female accessory sex organs such as vagina, uterus & fallopian tube.
  
• Wolffian duct gives rise to male accessory sex organs such as epididymis, vas deferens & seminal vesicles.
  
• Fetal testes begin to secrete the testosterone at about 2^nd to 4^th month of embryonic life.
  
• The secretion from seminal vesicles contains fructose, phophorylcholine, fibrinogen, ascorbic acid, citric acid, pepsinogen, acid phosphatase & prostaglandin.
  
• Fructose & citrate acts as fuel for the spermatozoa.
  
• Prostatic secretion is rich in enzymes, fructose & citrate.
  
• Androgen appears to be essential for spermatogenesis. Whereas FSH is required for spermatic maturation.
  
• Testes do not produce fructose.(seminal vesicle)
  
• Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the developing sperm; secrete oestrogen & hormone binding proteins.
  
• Testosterone is synthesized from pregnanolone.
  
• Testosterone stimulates the process of spermatogenesis, also necessary for the formation of secondary spermatocyte from primary spermatocyte.
  
• Growth hormone is essential for the general metabolic processes in testis.
  
• Male sex hormone is secreted mainly by interstitial cells of Leydig.
  
• Development of male sex organ in fetal life depends on testosterone produced under the influence of HCG.
  
• Testosterone circulates in Combination with Gonadal steroid binding globulin.
  
• Hormone used for treating osteoporosis in old age — Testosterone.
  
• In males FSH promotes spermatogenesis by enhancing the transport of Testosterone to seminiferous tubules and androgen binding protein synthesis from sertoli cells.
  

  

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• During menstrual period, upto 20 gm of protein may be lost.
  
• Quantity of blood expelled during normal menstral cycle is 40 ml (approx) & serous – 35 mls.
  
• FSH level is high in post menopausal women.
  
• Ovarian hormones are estrogen and progesterone
  
• Ovulation occurs on the 14^th day of menstrual cycle in a normal cycle of 28 days.
  
• Oxytocin causes contraction of smooth muscles of uterus & enhances labour.
  
• Hormones secreted are HCG, Oestrogen, progesterone & human chorionic somato mammo tropin.
  
• Relaxin is a hormone secreted from the maternal ovary during the later periods of pregnancy.
  
• Biological test for Pregnancy can be performed only after 2 – 3 weeks of conception. 
  
• LH is concerned with follicle maturation and ovulation.
  
• Menopausal hot flushes are due to LH surge.
  
• Estrogen increases the secretion and ciliary beating in fallopian tubes.
  
• Estrogen changes the cuboidal lining of vagina to stratified.
  
• Estrogen changes the break down of glycogen into lactate in vagina.
  
• Estrogen initiates breast development.
  
• Estrogen causes early epiphyseal closure.
  
• Estrogen causes water retention.
  
• Important function of progesterone is to promote secretory changes in endometrium.
  
• Progesterone is the hormone for maintenance of pregnancy.
  
• Progesterone inhibits ovulation.
  
• The most important function of progesterone is to promote secretory changes in endometrium.
  

  

WATER & ELECTROLYTE / ACID-BASE BALANCE

• In human beings the total body water varies from 45 – 75 % of body weight.
  
• Total water in the body is about 40 liters. (ICF forms 55% & ECF forms 45%).
  
• The volume of interstial fluid is about 12 liters.
  
• The volume of plasma is about 2.75 liters.
  
• Osmolality is the measure of a fluid’s capability to create osmotic pressure, also called as osmotic conc. of a solution.
  
• Osmolarity is the no: of particles / per liter of solution.
  
• Isotonic solutions are having same effective osmolality as body fluids. Eg: 0.9% Nacl solution & 5% glucose solution.
  
• The insensible water loss from the body is about 600 to 800 ml. per day.
  
• The quantity of water lost as sweat per day is 600 – 800 C.C.
  
• The normal pH of plasma is 7.4
  
• Acidosis is pH  below 7.38
  
• Alkalosis is pH above 7.42
  
• Respiratory acidosis: primary excess of carbonic acid
  
  • Due to hypoventilation as in respiratory diseases & neural diseases.
    
• Metabolic acidosis: primary deficiency of bicarbonate
  
  • As in lactic acidosis, diabetic ketoacidosis, uremic acidosis & diarrhea.
    
• Respiratory alkalosis: primary deficiency of carbonic acid
  
  • Due to hyperventilation as in hypoxia, neural diseases & psychological conditions.
    
• Metabolic alkalosis: primary excess of bicarbonate
  
  • As in vomiting & treatment with diuretics.